Elizabeth M. Crowley and Dr. Lora Beth Brown, Nutrition, Dietetics, and Food Science

Coaches and trainers need to be aware of the dietary practices of their athletes and strive to encourage their players to engage in healthy and proper nutrition. The purpose of this study was twofold: 1) assess the dietary and nutrition practices of a group of female high school basketball players, and 2) to determine if expectancies for achievement and success are associated with better eating practices. Understanding the latter, may be useful in helping high school coaches devise ways to motivate players to improve their eating habits.

Eighteen members of the Timpanogos Girls’ Softball Team (Orem, Utah) participated in this study. The average age of the players was 15.7 years (SD = 1.07). On average, the girls had played softball for 7 years (SD = 2.17). Sixteen (88.9 percent) of the players were white, 1 player reported being Hispanic, and 1 player reported being Pacific islander/Polynesian. Seven (38.9 percent) of the players were freshmen, 5 (27.8 percent) were sophomores, 4 (22.2 percent) were juniors, and 2 (11.1 percent) were seniors.

A self-report survey was administered to the participants three times during the 2006 softball season: at the beginning, at the midpoint, and at the end of the season. The survey consisted of three parts. The first part included seven items that measured the players’ self-efficacy, in terms of their expectations for the season, and their self-perceptions of their ongoing performance on the field. Respondents used a 7-point scale with higher scores indicating more positive evaluations for this section. The second section asked a series of questions involving eating habits (kinds of foods eaten, selected, or avoided) and meal skipping. Respondents used a 5-point scale indicating the frequency of specific eating behaviors (e.g., 0 = “never” to 4 = “almost always”). The final section included demographic items.

Overall, this study found that the players’ self-perception and self-efficacy measures remained relatively constant at each of the three measuring points during the season. I did note a slight drop at the midpoint of the season. For example, at the beginning of the season, the girls reported relatively high expectations for their personal performance (M = 6.00, SD = .84). That dropped at the midpoint (M = 5.38; SD = 1.09) and then rose slightly at the season’s end (M= 5.44, SD = 1.24). This pattern would logically be expected as the reality of the season has its effect on the players. One interesting pattern was the gradual decline in reported perceptions of personal improvement from the last season to the current season. At the beginning of the season the reported mean score was 5.94 (SD = 1.06). By the end of the season, the mean score was 5.44 (SD = 1.68). It is important to note the increase in the standard deviation, or variation, in the scores. It is highly likely that one or two players, who failed to have the kind of season they had hoped for, may actually account for this difference.

An analysis of the data indicates that the girls were relatively healthy eaters throughout the course of the season. On the positive side, the girls typically ate 3 meals a day, were relatively frequent consumers of dairy products, and reported rarely skipping meals. On the other hand, they could have improved their dietary habits by eating more items from the bread and cereal group, more vegetables, more fruits, and more meat.

Some additional findings are worth noting here. As the season progressed, the girls reported being 1) more likely to choose fat-free foods over low-fat foods and 2) less likely to eat meat. Both of these changes in dietary practices could have negative effects on performance. Eating low-fat foods and less meat could affect strength, endurance, muscle development, and therefore performance. Also of concern was the fact that as the season progressed, the girls indicated that they were less likely than at the midpoint of the season to prefer fruit as a snack over the items typically found in vending machines.

There was some good news as well. As the season progressed, the girls also reported 1) being less likely to choose diet soda over milk and 2) more likely to chose water over diet soda. Both reflect healthy changes in dietary practices.

I noted that at the mid season point, the girls reported a decline in skipping 1 meal a day, so I decided to explore some of the possible underlying causes for this occurrence by running some t tests. To do so, I divided the girls into two groups: those who were less frequent meal skippers (never or rarely) and those who were more frequent (sometimes and often). I then re-examined the mean scores for the self-perception and self-efficacy as a player, by comparing these two groups. Those who were the most frequent meal skippers (n = 4), on one hand, had the highest expectations for the season compared to other players and to themselves. It is possible that they may have believed that controlling their weight may have been associated with the level of their play and ability. On the other hand, I found that the less frequent meal skippers perceived themselves as being better at softball overall and better than more of their teammates than those who were the frequent meal skippers. In addition, I found that the less frequent meal skippers perceived themselves as having a better season, as showing greater improvement, and as making more contributions to the team than the more frequent meal skippers group.

One possible interpretation of these finds lies in our understanding of the relationship between global self-efficacy and self-esteem among pathological eaters. Typically, women who suffer from eating disorders have an unusually high sense of self-efficacy. In other words, they strongly believe that they can control their lives through eating restriction and weight loss. On the other hand, they suffer from low self-esteem. This would explain the differences between the two groups in relation to the final five questions, which are consistent with self-evaluation of specific abilities and outcomes.

I then re-ran the t tests, this time comparing those who never skipped a meal with those who reported often skipping a meal each day. The results were consistent with the previous findings, with one exception involving the questions (“How much do you think you have improved?”). In this case, those who often skipped a meal scored higher, but the mean difference was only .2.

As a girls’ softball and basketball coach, conducting this study has taught me that an athletes’ performance can be influenced by eating behaviors. Even though my sample was small I still found interesting insight. Those who have higher expectations and lower self-esteem tend to have controlled eating behaviors (e.g. skipping meals). Those who have higher self-esteem feel they perform well and have healthier eating habits. I have learned that proper balance in dietary behaviors can help lead to a more balanced life and a feeling of adequacy. This enables athletes to perform to their expectations, which allows them to feel successful.