Curtis Child and Dr. Mikaela Dufur, Sociology
Social capital is a theoretical concept that has been the subject of much research and debate. Because of its abstract nature, it is difficult to define. James Coleman defines social capital in this way:
“Social Capital is defined by its function…Like other forms of capital, social capital is productive, making possible the achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be possible…Unlike other forms of capital, social capital inheres in the structure of the relations between actors and among actors” (1988).
Whereas physical capital refers to physical resources that individuals, communities or nations possess, and human capital refers to the amount of education that individuals, communities or nations possess, social capital taps into individuals’ social relations and how those social relations provide access to or lack of access to needed resources.
Applying social capital theory to an educational setting, we hypothesized that students who possess higher amounts of social capital will be more successful in school. In order to test this hypothesis we were required to construct valid measurements for social capital. For our analysis, we used the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS), a nationally representative multistaged stratified random sample of students across the nation. The study was conducted by the National Opinion Research Center for Educational Statistics (NCES). The base year study in 1988 surveyed approximately 25,000 eighth-grade students from approximately 1,000 public and private schools, as well as parents, school administrators, and teachers. We have used data from this year for our analysis.
Because this survey was not intended to identify and measure social capital specifically, we were required to sift through hundreds of variables to search for variables that we felt would be appropriate indicators social capital. This searching characterized the first part of our analysis. Next, we modified the variables so that they could be used effectively in the statistical analysis. After aggregating all the individual cases, the sample size was 923 schools.
We used linear regression to test the significance of these various indicators of social capital. We controlled for variables such as the school percentage of single parent families, minorities, teachers with graduate degrees, white teachers, students with limited English proficiency, and students with free lunches. Other control variables include public vs. private schools, region of the school (north central, south, west, or north east), urbanicity (rural, suburb, urban), size of school enrollment, and number of teachers in the school. The dependent variable was the students’ scores on a standardized test.
The following indicators were statistically significant in our analysis:
Communication with teachers measures the amount of communication reported between teachers and students. Individual students responded to the question: “Since the beginning of the school year, have you talked to a teacher at your school for any of the following reasons?” Students responded ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to statements such as: “To help improve your academic work in school right now”; “To select courses or programs at school”; “For counseling on personal problems”; and so forth. These responses were combined to create a teacher-student communication additive score that increases by one point for each student response showing the student had direct communication with a teacher. The individual scores of the students were then averaged for each school to create a school-level indicator measuring teacher-student communication. An increase in this variable indicates an increase in the amount of communication between teacher and students—suggesting an increase in the amount of social capital in the school. Our analysis showed that for every increase by one in the communication with teachers score we predict that the students’ standardized test score would increase by .57 points.
Students’ involvement in extra-curricular activities also taps social capital among the students. We found that if students were involved in any extra-curricular activity, regardless of how many, we can predict that their standardized test score would increase by 4.83 points.
School administration perception of school problems measures whether the conditions for the building and maintenance of social capital are favorable. Administrators were asked to indicate the degree to which tardiness, absenteeism, class cutting, physical conflicts among students, robbery or theft, vandalism of school property, student use of alcohol, student use of illegal drugs, student possession of weapons, physical abuse of teachers, and verbal abuse of teachers were problematic in the school. The responses were scaled at the individual level of analysis, and then averaged for each school to create a school level variable. An increase in this number suggests an increase in the amount of school problems. According to social capital theory, a high level of reported school problems should curb the sharing of trust that is essential for the creation and exchange of social capital. Thus we predict that an increase in the administrators’ reported perceptions of school problems would be inversely related to the amount of social capital at the school. Our analysis showed that with every unit increase in the school administration perception of school problems scale, we predict that the standardized test score will decrease by 1.52.
Finally, Afraid to ask questions in class taps the existence of social capital between both students and teachers. Students were asked whether they were afraid to ask questions in math, English, social studies, and science classes. The individual responses were scaled at the individual level of analysis, and then averaged for each school to create a school level variable. An increase in this variable indicates an increase in the general amount of fear in the classroom as it pertains to asking questions in class. A general lack of fear in the classroom suggests an environment conducive to the building of social capital. Based on our analysis, we predict that with every unit increase in the afraid to ask questions in class scale, the students’ standardized test score will decrease by 5.63.
These variables, therefore, suggest that social capital does affect eighth-grade academic achievement.
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Coleman, James. 1988. “Issue Supplement: Organizations and Institutions: Sociological and Economic Approaches to the Analysis of Social Structure.” American Journal of Sociology 94:S95-S120.