Attractive Advertising

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Michael Westover

Introduction

The world is inundated with images of highly attractive and underweight models (e.g. Joseph 1982). These models are commonly seen in many types of advertising, endorsing every product imaginable. Thin models create a standard of beauty that many females strive to emulate (e.g. Hebl & Heatherton, 1998).
Although the practice of using underweight models is very common, there has been little research to validate its use. Advertising research during recent years has focused on the effectiveness of endorsers (e.g. Ohanian, 1991), but little research has been done to evaluate the relationship between endorser weight and purchase intent. These thoughts lead to the questions, “Is it preferable and more effective to use underweight models in product advertising? And, are there situations where a normal or overweight spokesperson would lend a more persuasive endorsement, and if so, for what types of products?” These questions are the inspiration for this research project.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of an endorser’s weight on purchase intention and brand belief for food products. The study questioned the effects of weight on consumer perceptions and purchase intent for a fictitious brand of soda. The study also examined the relationships between endorser weight and perceptions of diet and non-diet soda.

Review of Literature

The positive and negative effects of endorsers on desire to purchase and brand attitude have received a great deal of attention over the last several years (e.g. Kamins, 1990). Two opposing schools of thought have presented contrasting views on the importance of attractiveness in advertising. The first school of thought suggests that endorser attractiveness is very important for effective advertising (e.g. Joseph, 1982). The second school of thought submits that the level of endorser beauty does not have a significant effect on advertising (e.g. Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo, 1991). This review explores these opposing schools of thought and how cultural meaning theory, endorser credibility and the match-up hypothesis affect the persuasive value of product advertising.

In Favor of Attractive Endorsers

Evidence exits of negative stereotypes against overweight people that may damage their effectiveness as endorsers. Studies suggest that the level of perceived model attractiveness influences people’s evaluations of the aesthetic qualities of the ad and attention-getting value of the ad (Baker & Churchill, 1997). So-called attractive people have been ascribed a wealth of favorable characteristics, including strength, sexual warmth, sensitivity, kindness, poise, modesty, better character, greater social acceptance, more social influence, more romantic involvement, intellectual competence, and concern for others than their less attractive counterparts (Joseph, 1982; Bersheid & Walster, 1974; Till & Busler 2000). Attractiveness has been defined as a combination of beautiful facial features and a thin body type (Bower & Landreth, 2001). Because weight and attractiveness appear to be related (Rand & Wright, 1999), many of these same characteristics may be attributed to thinner endorsers.

Overweight people have also been associated with a long list of negative characteristics, including blameworthiness, lack of will power, untrustworthiness and incompetence (Bellizzi, Klassen & Belonax, 1989). In an experiment to examine college students’ perceptions of salespersons’ appearances, students who described a salesperson as being obese described the store as having a poorer image and as being less successful (Klassen, 1996). Other studies have found negative stereotypes of overweight people when applying for jobs (Polinko & Popovich, 2001). Ohanian (1990) suggest that an endorser should imbue the product with a positive image devoid of negative stereotypes. It is possible that the negative attributes associated with heavier endorsers could have a negative effect on sales.

Against Attractive Endorsers

Several studies have shown that it might not be appropriate to use highly attractive endorsers in all circumstances (e.g. Till & Busler, 2000). Caballero, Lumpkin and Madden (1989) found that physical attractiveness did not increase the willingness to purchase soda or cheese. They suggested that endorser beauty is not a significant factor in producing a desire to purchase (Caballero, Lumpkin & Madden, 1989). Studies have also proposed that unattractive females are much more effective than their more attractive female counterparts at selling coffee (Baker & Churchill, 1977). Unattractive endorsers may be more appropriate than attractive endorsers for other products as well. Studies have proposed that normal looking endorsers might be perceived as more trustworthy than very attractive endorsers because of the similarity between the average consumer and the normal looking endorsers (e.g. Bower & Landreth, 2001).
One study asked subjects to choose the ideal body size out of nine drawings of different body sizes ranging from very obese to very thin (Rand & Wright, 1999). The average ideal body size selected was much larger than the current “Twiggy” models that are more commonly used. Current estimates show that around one-third of men and women in the United States are overweight or obese (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2001). An overweight endorser may be viewed as more trustworthy than the current highly attractive endorsers to an increasingly overweight nation.

Meaning Transfer Theory
Meaning transfer theory states that those who receive an advertising message assign meanings and values to that message based on their personal experiences and values (McCracken, 1989). McCracken suggested the following three stage process of meaning transfer: first, the receiver forms a mental image of the product endorser. Second, the receiver projects the endorser’s image and characteristics onto the product. And finally, the mental image is transferred from the product to the receiver. Meaning transfer theory states that advertising messages are complex packages of cultural meaning (McCracken, 1989). Messages are more persuasive if consumers assign a positive meaning to the product endorser, which will then be assigned to the product.

Baker and Churchill (1977) proposed that the effectiveness of a persuasive message may depend primarily on the “familiarity”, “likeability” and “similarity” of the source. Familiarity is defined as knowledge of the source through repeated exposure. Similarity is the perceived resemblance between the source and the receiver of the message. Likeability is defined as the affection for the source’s physical appearance and behavior.

Although the most widely used method in marketing research for choosing an endorser is “Q” (fare quotient) rating, this only measures the spokesperson’s market popularity and recognizability (Ohanian, 1991). Use of models that are easily recognizable and popular does not necessarily mean the models are effective advertisers. Endorser credibility may also play an important role in endorser effectiveness.

Endorser Credibility

Ohanian (1990) suggested that the three components of source credibility are expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness. A communicator’s influence will depend on a combination of these three dimensions. Expertise is the extent to which a communicator is perceived to be source of valid assertions. For example, a professional baseball player is an expert with baseball bats. It may be possible for an endorser to be perceived as an expert, but not trustworthy. A car salesperson may be seen as an expert on cars, but not necessarily trustworthy. Of the three categories, perceived expertise was found to have the greatest impact on purchase intention (Ohanian, 1991).

Trustworthiness refers to the consumer’s confidence in the source for providing information in an honest and objective manner (Ohanian, 1991). Many would consider a good friend to be trustworthy in most matters. Trustworthy endorsers are not necessarily experts. One would trust the opinion of a close friend, but not necessarily consider that friend to be an expert on the subject.

Ohanian (1990) suggested that physically attractive communicators were more successful in changing beliefs than are unattractive communicators. Aristotle said, “Beauty is greater recommendation than any letter of reference.” Physically attractive models tend to be effective for a particular category of products, those that are attractiveness related (Kamins, 1990). Physical attractiveness is viewed as the least important factor in the credibility levels of endorsers (Baker & Churchill, 1977). If an overweight endorser is seen as having an expert opinion on food and more trustworthy because of his or her average appearance, attractiveness may take on less importance for success as an endorser.

The Match-Up Hypothesis

A study by Kanugo and Pang (1973) revealed that use of an attractive model with one product caused a favorable response to that product, and use of that same model for another product caused a negative response. They described varying effectiveness of the models with different products as the “fittingness” of the models for the product. This concept later evolved into the “match-up hypothesis.”
The match up hypothesis (e.g. Kamins, 1990) suggests that endorsers are more effective when there is a perceived connection, or “fit” between the endorsed product and the endorser who is selling that product. If a greater “fit” exists between the endorsed product and the endorser, the endorser will be seen as more credible and the advertisement will be more persuasive. People tend to lend credibility to endorsers who use the product on a regular basis and to those who are perceived as product experts (Ohanian 1990). Tiger Woods might be an excellent spokesperson to sell golf clubs and a terrible spokesperson for a new make-up line.

Kamins (1990) examined the match-up hypothesis in conjunction with the role of physical attractiveness. He found that physically attractive endorsers significantly increased measures of endorser credibility and attitude toward the advertisement. For products that were unrelated to physical attractiveness, use of an attractive endorser had no significant effect on perceptions of the endorser, the advertisement, or the product endorsed. Although the use of an attractive model improved the perception of the ad and the endorser, it did not have a significant positive effect on purchase intent or brand belief for the endorsed product.

Using attractive endorsers seems to be more successful when advertising image-enhancing products like cologne and ineffective when advertising the overwhelming majority of products like coffee (Baker & Churchill, 1977). Successful use of unattractive endorsers implies that a heavier or non-perfect looking model may be more valuable in advertising products that are non-image-enhancing.

Race, Age, and Gender Effects on Advertising

A participant’s reaction to an advertising endorser depends on many factors, including race of the endorser and the participant, weight of the endorser and the participant, and the age and gender of the participants. White women rate large women, especially large white women, lower on the attractiveness scale than black women. Black women tend to be more accepting of larger models, especially large black models. The reasons for these different attitudes have to do with black and white women’s social role models and cultural beliefs concerning obesity (Hebl & Heatherton, 1998).
Age is also an important determinate of attitudes toward heavier individuals. Adults are more accepting of body size variations than younger subjects. Younger subjects have a smaller range of weights that are socially acceptable. Subjects also have more negative views of endorser who are young and overweight than old and overweight. People of all ages are least accepting of very thin and very obese body types (Rand & Wright, 2000).

Gender plays an important role in the evaluation of endorser effectiveness. Subjects tend to rate models of the opposite sex higher on the attractiveness scale than models of their own sex (Baker & Churchill, 1977). This stems from the American cultural ideal that one should not find a person of one’s own gender to be attractive. Women tend to be highly critical of heavier female endorsers while men tend to be more accepting of overweight spokespersons of their own gender (Glenn & Chow, 2002).

Hypotheses

Because of the rationale from the sections above, it appeared that endorser size would have a significant effect on the evaluation of the endorser and the endorsed product. Although there has not been consistent support for a connection between endorser attractiveness and positive perceptions of the endorsed product, It was expected that the thinner endorser would have a more positive influence on brand beliefs and purchase intent.

Hypothesis 1a: Attitude toward the brand will be more favorable when endorsed by a thinner model than a heavier model.

Hypothesis 1b: Purchase intention for the brand will be greater when endorsed by a thinner model than a heavier model.

Research on the match-up hypothesis has indicated that image-enhancing products have a greater “fit” with attractive people (e.g. Kamins, 1990). Because endorser size and endorser attractiveness appear to be connected (Bower & Landreth, 2001), a perceived “fit” was expected between the diet, or image-enhancing, soda and the thinner, or more attractive, model.

Hypothesis2a: There will be a more positive brand attitude for the product used to lower ones weight when endorsed by a thinner model than when a product used to lower one’s weight is endorsed by a heavier model.

Hypothesis 2b: There will be a more positive purchase intention for the product used to lower ones weight when endorsed by a thinner model than when a product used to lower one’s weight is endorsed by a heavier model.

It appears that attractive people are attributed with many positive characteristics (e.g. Joseph, 1982). Heavier people are also ascribed many negative characteristics (Bellizzi, Klassen & Belonax, 1989). Because of these two findings, it was expected that the thinner model would influence a positive perception of endorser attractiveness, trustworthiness and expertise.

Hypothesis 3: The thinner model will be found more attractive than the heavier model.

Hypothesis 4: The thinner model will be perceived as more trustworthy than the overweight endorser.

Hypothesis 5: The thinner model will be perceived as more of an expert than the heavier model.

Methods

Sample Characteristics
The sample size consisted of 250 participants. Subjects were US citizens ages 16 through 73. The average online respondent was 30.0 years old. This varies from the national average of 35.9 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002). The discrepancy in ages may have occurred because the sample was gathered from Internet users and the elderly tend to use the Internet less (Media Awareness Network, 1999).

47.6 percent (N = 119) of the respondents were female and 52.0 percent (N = 130) were male. The average female respondent had a median weight of 137.5 pounds. This is close to the average weight for adult females of 140 (National Center for Health Statistics, 2004). The average male respondent had a median weight of 180.0 pounds. The average adult male also happens to weigh 180 pounds (National Center for Health Statistics, 2004).

A few e-mails were received from participants during the study that said they had forwarded the questionnaire to friends or coworkers. This created a bit of a snowball sampling. Use of the Internet and snowball sampling created a non-probability sample.

Methodology

This study used an experimental design that was conducted online. The subjects self-selected to participate in the study by responding to a message posted on Internet bulletin boards (See Appendix A), primarily www.groups.yahoo.com. The bulletin board message invited subjects to participate in a study about product advertising. The message also stated that one randomly selected participant would receive $100. The bulletin board message then directed the participants to a webpage where the survey was administered. After reading the consent form (see Appendix B), the participants were randomly assigned one of four treatments (see Appendix C). Parts of this study used techniques developed by Till and Busler (2000) and Ohanian (1991). Each of the four treatments invited the participants to look at the ad as though they were flipping through a magazine. The subjects looked at the ad for thirty seconds before they were directed to a questionnaire. After submitting the questionnaire results, the participants were invited to enter their e-mail addresses for the $100 drawing. A different webpage for contact information separated the subjects’ results from any information that might be used to identify them. The entire study took the respondents approximately three to ten minutes to complete.

Independent Variables
The advertisement featured either a thinner or heavier size model (see Figures 1 & 2) selling either a diet or non-diet product (see Figure 3). In all four treatments, the same picture and copy were used, but the image was graphically altered to change the size of the endorser (heavier or thinner) and the endorsed product (diet or non-diet). The combinations of diet/regular soda and heavier/thinner body sizes created a 2 X 2 design matching a heavier, or lighter, model with a product designed to decrease, or not decrease one’s weight. In treatment 1, the thinner model endorsed the non-diet “Shiver” (N = 72). In treatment 2, the heavier model endorsed the non-diet “Shiver”(N = 69). In treatment 3, the thinner model endorsed the diet “Shiver” (N = 66). In treatment 4, the heavier model endorsed the diet “Shiver” (N = 43).

A graphic designer increased the size of the models waist, back, arms, and legs and washed out the collarbone for the heavier model via digital photo manipulation. In the original picture, the model’s height is 5 foot 2 inches and her weight 98 pounds. This gives the model a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 17.9, which is viewed as slightly underweight (National Institute of Health, 2004, para. 3). In the graphically enhanced picture, the model’s weight was changed to give the model a loosely approximated BMI of 25. This is viewed as slightly overweight.
a
A fictional soda product was created for the study named “Shiver”. A fictional name helped to limit lurking variables that may stem from preconceived attitudes and ideas about existing brands. This enabled to control for the perceived affects of weight on purchase intention and brand belief.
a
Dependent Variables

Attractiveness, Trustworthiness & Expertise
The endorser was evaluated on twelve, seven-point differential scales from Ohanian (1990). Four questions were asked for each of the three categories: attractiveness (coefficient alpha = .84), trustworthiness (coefficient alpha = .82), and expertise (coefficient alpha = .85) (See Appendix C), and results for the three categories were averaged for analysis. Although these coefficient alpha levels are slightly lower than those from Ohanian’s study, they are still significant. Lower means were associated with more positive perceptions of attractiveness, expertise and trustworthiness.

Brand Attitude
Subjects evaluated the brand (non-diet and diet Shiver soda) on three, seven-point semantic differential scales (positive anchors: strongly like, favorable & positive) in response to three questions on brand attitude (See Appendix C). These three items were averaged to represent brand attitude (coefficient alpha = .83) for analysis. Higher means were associated with more positive brand belief.

Purchase Intent

Purchase intent was measured using three, seven-point semantic differential scales (unlikely/likely, definitely would not/definitely would, improbable/ probable) in response to three questions regarding the likelihood of purchasing Shiver soda (See Appendix C). These three items were averaged for analysis (coefficient alpha = .87). Higher means were associated with greater purchase intent.

Endorser Appropriateness
Two seven-point semantic differential questions were asked concerning the appropriateness of the endorser (Inappropriate/Appropriate, Ineffective/Effective). These two items were averaged for analysis (coefficient alpha = .89). Higher means were associated with a greater belief in the appropriateness of the endorser.

Several demographic questions were also asked concerning the height, weight, age, ethnicity, and gender of the participants.

Results

The following section presents the findings from the research. Independent Samples T-tests were used to analyze that data through SPSS software.

Hypothesis Tests

Hypothesis 1a predicted that general attitude would be more favorable toward the brand when endorsed by a thinner model. Overall, no significant relationship was found between the size (heavier, thinner) of the model and the attitude toward the brand.

Hypothesis 2a predicted that there would be a more positive brand attitude for the product used to lower one’s weight when endorsed by a thinner model than when endorsed by a heavier model. A significant relationship was found between the size of the model and attitude toward the brand, when the model depicted was selling a diet product (t = 1.997, p<.05). For the diet soda, the thinner endorser (M = 11.61, sd = 3.72) was associated with a more positive attitude toward the brand than the heavier endorser (M = 10.16, sd = 3.64).

A significant relationship was also found between the type of soda (diet, non-diet) and brand attitude for the heavier endorser (t = 2.205, p<.05). The heavier endorser was associated with a more positive brand attitude when selling the non-diet soda (M = 11.56, sd = 2.98) than when selling the diet soda (M = 10.16, sd = 3.64).

Hypothesis 1b predicted that purchase intent would be greater for the brand when endorsed by a thinner model. Overall, there was no significant relationship found between the size (heavier, thinner) of the model and purchase intent for the brand.

Hypothesis 2b predicted that there would be greater purchase intent for the product used to lower one’s weight when endorsed by a thinner model than when endorsed by a heavier model. A significant relationship was found between the size of the endorser and attitude toward the brand, when the model depicted was selling a diet product (t= 2.603, p<.05). For the diet soda, the thinner endorser (M = 10.27, sd = 4.65) was associated with a more positive purchase intent than the heavier endorser (M = 8.02, sd = 4.01).
A significant relationship was also found between the type of soda (diet, non-diet) and purchase intent for the heavier endorser (t = 2.354, p<.05). The heavier endorser was associated with a greater purchase intent when selling the non-diet soda (M = 9.90, sd = 4.13) than when selling the diet soda (M = 8.02, sd = 4.01).

Hypothesis 3 predicted that the thinner endorser would be found more attractive than the heavier endorser. A significant relationship was found between the size of the endorser and the perceived beauty of the endorser (t= 3.843, p<.05). The thinner endorser (M = 11.33, sd = 4.68) was perceived as being more beautiful than the heavier endorser (M = 14.57, sd = 5.12). The relationship between the perceived beauty of the model and the size of the model shows that the participants could tell the difference between the heavier and thinner treatments.

Hypothesis 4 predicted that the thinner model would be perceived as more trustworthy than the heavier endorser. No significant relationship was found between the size of the model and the model’s perceived level of trustworthiness. Although past studies have suggested that trustworthiness and attractiveness are inextricably linked (e.g. Till & Busler, 2000), these findings suggest that an endorser may be perceived as unattractive and trustworthy, unattractive and untrustworthy, attractive and trustworthy, or attractive and untrustworthy.

Hypothesis 5 predicted that the thinner model would be perceived as more of an expert than the heavier model. No significant relationship was found between the size of the model and the model’s perceived level of expertise. Interestingly, a significant relationship was found between the type of drink (diet, non-diet) sold by the thinner model and her perceived level of expertise (t=1.673, p<.05). The thinner model was perceived as having a greater level of expertise when endorsing the diet soda (M = 14.08, sd = 3.64) than the non-diet soda (M= 13.13, sd = 2.97).

Discussion

Purchase intent and brand belief for food products appear to be related to model size for image-enhancing food products. Thinner models appear to enhance purchase intent and brand belief for diet food products. Heavier models may have negative effects on brand belief and purchase intent for diet food products. No evidence was found of a relationship between model size and purchase intent or brand belief for non-diet food products.

This study provides ample support for the match-up hypothesis. Evidence was found of a connection between the size of the model and the perceived effectiveness of that model when selling a product intended to lower one’s weight. The results also imply a “fit” between thinner models and diet products. The thinner model was seen as having a higher level of expertise when selling the diet product than when selling the non-diet product. The perceived “fit” between the thinner model and the diet soda increased purchase intent and brand attitude for the diet soda. Advertisers may want to consider using a thinner model for food products that are intended to lower one’s weight.

The heavier model was associated with a more positive brand belief and greater purchase intent for the non-diet soda than for the diet soda. There appears to be a stronger perceived “fit” between the heavier endorser and the non-diet soda than the heavier endorser and the diet soda. The participants may have viewed the diet soda as an ineffective weight-reduction product and formed negative opinions about the diet soda when sold by a heavier model. Heavier endorsers appear to have negative effects on the persuasiveness of advertisements for image-enhancing food products.

The perceived levels of expertise were similar for both the thinner and the heavier models, except when the thinner model endorsed the diet soda. The thinner model was seen as having a higher level of expertise for products intended to lower one’s weight. Perhaps, participants believed that the model has successfully used the product to lose weight or maintain current low weight. This may have led to a more positive image and greater purchase intent for the diet soda.

The model’s perceived levels of expertise and trustworthiness were similar for both the thinner and the heavier models when selling the non-diet soda. Purchase intent and brand belief were also similar for the heavier and thinner models when selling the diet soda. It would seem that when using food products that do not decrease the weight of the consumer, the size of the endorser has little to do with the effectiveness of the advertisement; however, this could be untrue for extreme body sizes.

Attractiveness seems to be linked with the size of the endorser. Larger endorsers are usually seen as less beautiful than thinner endorsers (This may be untrue for extremely thin models). Although thinner models are generally seen as more attractive, there was no evidence that thinner endorsers increase purchase intent and brand attitude for non-image-enhancing products. For non-image-enhancing products like the non-diet soda, thinner size does not appear to increase model effectiveness.

Trustworthiness does not appear to be a function of endorser size. No significant difference was found in perceptions of trustworthiness between the heavier and the thinner models. Although this may be untrue for excessively thin or obese models, people seem to have similar trust levels for both heavier and thinner models when endorsing both diet and non-diet food products. The opinion of a heavier model may hold just as much weight as a thinner model.

This study may have ramifications for the advertising industry. Common wisdom seems to dictate that attractive and thinner endorsers are preferable to unattractive and heavier endorsers. No conclusive evidence was found for this, except in the case of food products that are designed to improve the user’s image. Diet soda products and other low-fat and low-carbohydrate food items would fall into the image-enhancing category. These food products may demand thin and attractive models. Other food products may benefit equally from either a heavier or thinner endorser.

Limitations

A random sample of larger size may have increased the trustworthiness of the findings. Although the treatments were randomly assigned, one of the treatment groups was significantly smaller than the other three. This may have occurred because of an imperfect computer code that was used to administer the treatments. This faulty randomizer may have influenced the outcome of the study.
The study was limited as to the number and size of models and the kinds of products endorsed. The survey used a Caucasian female model. Subjects might also perceive heavier and thinner models of varying ethnicities differently. Varying cultures could have differing ideas about body size and weight.

Suggestions for Future Research

This study sets the groundwork for future research in the area of weight and advertising. Future research could measure variations in perception between endorsers of extremely high, extremely low and normal weights. It is possible that extremely thin or extremely large models might elicit a more negative response with response to purchase intent and brand attitude than the slightly heavier and thinner models used in this study. It may be fruitful to perform similar studies with male model and female models with different ethnic backgrounds. An opportunity also exists to measure the effects of weight on perceptions of non-food products that do not have an effect on weight.

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