Shawn Hansen and Dr. Michael Philips, Humanities, Classics and Comparative Literature
The purpose of this research was to measure the rise of the individual consciousness in Japan over time as expressed through anime, or Japanese animations. To illustrate this, I compared group dynamics and the role of the individual as expressed through two anime: Space Cruiser Yamato (Uchuu Senkan Yamato), from 1976, and Akira from 1989.
This study concentrates on the Japanese values of groupism and obligation. Japan is a vertical society (Nakane 1970), one in which all relationships are based on one’s hierarchical position determined by their status, education, age, and gender. In general, the Japanese are group oriented (shudan-shugi), meaning they place a greater priority on the survival of the group and organization as a whole than they do on the individual (Abegglen, 1968; Vogel, 1979; Ouchi, 1981). Individual aspirations are subjugated to the peace and happiness of the group1 (Odaka, 1981, 43-46), and is likely motivated by a sense of obligation rather than compassion (Halloran, 1969, 236-237). In contrast, the West—and America in particular—can be fundamentally characterized as a society based on individualism.
We can see these Japanese values through the medium of television, as indigenous programming can reflect popular cultural values. Television has become an important part of the Japanese home; current statistics suggest that the average household in Japan watches television for an average of 7.5 hours a day 2 (Painter, 1996, 198.)
Over the past two decades, animation has become a significant genre. In 1994, “about 55 percent of the box-office revenues of Japan’s movie industry came from animation.” More than 10 percent of all publications in Japan are comics; and more than 60 percent of all exported television programming are animations 3 (Pollack 1995). Animation’s popularity extends from Japanese intellectuals, to students, to white collar workers (Lent, 1990, 57).
In 1977, the cartoon Space Cruiser Yamato issued in the animation boom (Lent, 1990, 57). Its popularity in Japan was echoed in America, where it was known as Star Blazers. In this cartoon, earth is being bombarded with radiation by evil aliens called Gamilons. The planet’s survival depends upon the crew of a resurrected Japanese battleship-turned-spaceship, which must bring critical heating technology from a distant planet within the space of a year. It is a story of duty to country and humanity.
A decade later, Katsuhiro Otomoto produced Akira, an animation adapted from Otomoto’s popular biweekly comic. Explicitly violent and technically revolutionary, Akira achieved local and international popularity. Set in 2019, 31 years after World War III, Akira is a story of man versus machine, subversive versus government. Tetsuo, the protagonist, is a young street punk who is captured by a government agency and forced to undergo scientific experimentation.
Although Space Cruiser Yamato falls under the genre of science fiction, its resemblance to Akira ends there. It differs fundamentally in its treatment of “traditional” Japanese values. The first episode opens to a battle scene; earth’s soldiers are outnumbered by the Gamilons, and a young captain sacrifices himself to allow his commander and other troops to escape. This theme of sacrifice for the group is explicitly expressed in each episode. Another scene in episode one shows the elderly captain standing on a bulkhead and crying out, “We will need many dedicated people, young men and men, educated and disciplined . . . Earth’s finest citizens . . . willing to make great sacrifices to take on the mission and save earth!” The protagonist, Derek Wildstar, exclaims with heated fervor, “I’m proud to go and serve.”
To the young Japanese mind, this can only refer to service of country, for Yamato is actually the ancient name of Japan. The battleship Yamato is refitted with new technology, and as it rises from its grave, one can almost see the resurrection of Japan literalized–restored after the war–and now the only real hope to save the earth. As the soldiers (all young cadets) triumphantly march into the ship, parents and friends shout to their sons to remember their duties to home and community– bringing to mind the Japanese value of obligation (on).
Further, any references to individuality are associated with failure and the enemy. After Wildstar makes an impetuous move, the authority figure rebukes him: “In order to [succeed], it will take cooperation from everyone.” The only individual who moves without group consensus is the leader of the Gamilons, Desslock. His eventual madness and destruction is the inevitable fate of anyone who pushes his own interests before the group’s.
In contrast, Akira’s main characters have no ties to each other or society. Tetsuo and his friends are orphans, who witness constant civil disorder and political corruption. The few ties the young characters may have to society are severed as Tetsuo is blatantly kidnapped by the government. This is echoed in the last violent scene, as Tetsuo destroys the city (and friends) in one complete rejection of society. The viewer is left with an incomplete sense of closure, impressed only with the uncontrollability of technology and the oppressiveness of government. The animation never mentions duty or loyalty to the group, and the triumph of the individual, although destructive, is the only available route to freedom.
Finally, the implications for the values of Japanese culture are disturbing at best. Individuality is certainly not a new concept in Japan, but the marked emphasis on rebellion in Japanese programming shows an undeniable trend in group dynamics. As modern Japan becomes a part of an international economy and communications become more instantaneous, this once insular country may be forced to accommodate such “Western” values.
1 Due to Japan’s geographic isolation and crowded conditions, the Japanese learned the most effective and efficient way to work was in groups (Benedict 1946). Also, Confucianism provided the basis for social order: emperor and nation, government and people, master and servant.
2 Animation joins the ranks of cars and electronics as successful exports, and may be one of Japan’s most significant forms of cultural capital. In comparison, Japanese music, movies, television shows, and books rarely sell well abroad.
3 Even as much as a decade ago, NHK public opinion surveys found that 64% of respondents agreed with that “television is something like an additional member of the family,” and 70% of respondents agreed that “not watching television for seven days straight would make them lonely” (Nihon Hoso Kyokai, 1983, 112). While the results of a such a pre-written survey are somewhat questionable, the data supports the argument that television has the potential to be a powerful communicator of ideas.
References
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